Research design refers to the overall plan or framework that guides how a study is conducted. It specifies how data will be collected, analysed, and interpreted in order to answer research questions in a logical and valid way. On this page: What is Research Design? Research Design vs Research Approach vs Methods Types of Research Design When to Use Different Research Designs Aspect Exploratory Research Conclusive Research Purpose Generate insights Test and verify findings Data needs Vague Clearly defined Structure Flexible Structured Methods Qualitative Quantitative (often) Findings Tentative Final and actionable Conclusive vs exploratory research design   What is Research Design? Same as research approach, different textbooks place different meanings on research design. Some authors consider research design as the choice between qualitative and quantitative research methods. Others argue that research design refers to the choice of specific methods of data collection and analysis. Research design is also placed as a master plan for conducting a research project and this appears to be the most authentic explanation of the term. In your dissertation you can define research design as a general plan about what you will do to answer the research question.[1] It is a framework for choosing specific methods of data collection and data analysis. Design of a study outlines how you will address your research question, collect data, analyze that data, and ultimately answer your question in a meaningful and valid way.   Research Design vs Research Approach vs Methods Research design should not be confused with research approach or research methods, although these concepts are closely related. Research approach refers to the logic of the study (deductive, inductive, or abductive), whereas research methods refer to the specific techniques used for data collection and analysis. Research design, on the other hand, acts as an overarching framework that links…

“Constructivism is the recognition that reality is a product of human intelligence interacting with experience in the real world. As soon as you include human mental activity in the process of knowing reality, you have accepted constructivism” Davis Elkind Constructivism accepts reality as a construct of human mind, therefore reality is perceived to be subjective. Moreover, this philosophical approach is closely associated with pragmatism and relativism. In simple terms, according to constructivism, all knowledge is constructed from human experience. This viewpoint is based on inseparability between knowledge and knower. Constructivism philosophy is based on cognitive psychology and its background relates to Socratic method, ancient Greece. Nevertheless, popularity of constructivism as a perspective in epistemology increased in recent years. Constructivist research places strong emphasis on the context in which social phenomena occur. Researchers adopting this philosophical perspective recognize that organizational practices, managerial decisions, and employee behaviors cannot be fully understood without considering the social, cultural, and institutional environments in which they occur. Therefore, constructivist studies often examine phenomena within their natural settings, allowing researchers to capture the complexity of real-world situations. The following are the key principles of constructivism research philosophy: Multiple realities. There is no single, objective truth. Instead, there are multiple realities that exist depending on the perspective and experiences of the individual. Active construction of knowledge. Individuals actively construct their own understanding of the world through their interactions with it. Social and cultural influence. Knowledge is shaped by the social and cultural context in which it is created and shared. Subjectivity. Researchers are not neutral observers, but rather participants in the research process who influence the findings through their own biases and interpretations. Qualitative methods. Constructivist research often relies on qualitative methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to capture the subjective experiences and perspectives of participants. The main distinction between constructivism philosophy and positivism relates to the fact that while positivism argues…

Research approach refers to the general plan and procedure used to conduct a study. It describes the logical direction that the research follows in order to answer the research question or test hypotheses. In business and management studies, research approaches are commonly classified into deductive, inductive, and abductive approaches, depending on whether the study aims to test existing theories, generate new theories, or explain unexpected observations. On this page: • Meaning of research approach• Deductive research approach• Inductive research approach• Abductive research approach• Choosing the right research approach The following table illustrates the comparison of research approaches: Feature Deductive Approach Inductive Approach Abductive Approach Starting point Existing theory or hypothesis Observations or data Surprising observation or puzzle Main objective Test theory or hypotheses Develop new theory Explain unexpected findings Direction of reasoning General → specific Specific → general Interaction between theory and data Use of data Used to test hypotheses Used to identify patterns and generate theory Used to explore phenomena and refine explanations Typical research methods Often quantitative Often qualitative Combination of qualitative and quantitative   Meaning of Research Approach In the field of science different researchers may assign different meanings for the team research approach. In some publications you may see that research approach may imply methods of data collection and data analysis in general and differences between qualitative and quantitative methods in particular. However, in our view research approach is best seen as a general plan and procedure for conducting the study. Accordingly, approach for the research can be divided into three categories: Deductive approach Inductive approach Abductive approach The relevance of hypotheses to the study is the main distinctive point between deductive and inductive approaches. Deductive approach tests the validity of assumptions (or theories/hypotheses) in hand, whereas inductive approach contributes to the emergence of new theories…

Business research methods can be defined as “a systematic and scientific procedure of data collection, compilation, analysis, interpretation, and implication pertaining to any business problem”[1]. Types of research methods can be classified into several categories according to nature and purpose of the study, methods of data collection, type of data, research design and other attributes. In methodology chapter of your dissertation, you need to specify and discuss the type of your research according to classifications illustrated in the following Table 1. Classification criterion Main types Nature of the study Descriptive research, Analytical research Purpose of the study Fundamental research, Applied research Methods of data collection Qualitative research, Quantitative research Type of data Primary research, Secondary research Research design Exploratory research, Conclusive research Time dimension of the study Cross-sectional research, Longitudinal research Table 1. Main Classifications of Research Methods in Business Studies Now, let’s look at each classification criterion and types individually.   Types of Research Methods According to Nature of the Study Types of the research methods according to the nature of research can be divided into two groups: descriptive and analytical. Descriptive research usually involves surveys and studies that aim to identify the facts. In other words, descriptive research mainly deals with the “description of the state of affairs as it is at present”[2], and there is no control over variables in descriptive research. Analytical research, on the other hand, is fundamentally different in a way that “the researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyse these in order to make a critical evaluation of the material”.[3]   Types of Research Methods According to the Purpose of the Study According to the purpose of the study, types of research methods can be divided into two categories: applied research and fundamental research. Applied research is also referred to as…

Ontology in research refers to the study of the nature of reality — what exists and how it exists. In business research, ontology determines whether reality is viewed as objective and independent of individuals, or as subjective and constructed through human perceptions and interactions. On this page: What is Ontology? Ontology in Business Studies Ontological Position View of Reality Key Idea Objectivism Reality is objective and independent Reality exists regardless of human perception Subjectivism (Constructivism) Reality is subjective and socially constructed Reality is created through human interaction Pragmatism Reality is practical and context-dependent Choose the view that best answers the research question Table 1. Ontology at a glance   What is Ontology? Ontology and epistemology are two different ways of viewing the research philosophy.  Ontology in business research can be defined as “the science or study of being”[1] and it deals with the nature of reality. Ontology is a system of belief that reflects an interpretation of an individual about what constitutes a fact. In simple terms, ontology is associated with what we consider as reality. Table 2 below illustrates main questions that key philosophical concepts attempt to answer: Philosophical concept Main question Ontology What is the nature of reality? Epistemology What can be accepted as knowledge? Methodology How knowledge regarding given question can be produced? Methods What specific ways of data collection and data analysis can be used? Paradigm What are the conceptual and/or methodological models that relate to a specific discipline during a particular period of time? Table 2 Key philosophical concepts and questions   Ontology relates to a central question of whether social entities need to be perceived as objective or subjective. In other words, within the scope of your research you need to decide whether the world is external to social world or the perceptions and…

Phenomenology in business research focuses on experiences, events and occurrences with disregard or minimum regard for the external and physical reality.  Phenomenology, also known as non-positivism, is a variation of interpretivism, along with other variations such as hermeneutics, symbolic interactionism and others. In simple terms, phenomenology can be explained as the science of mindful experience. It focuses on meanings of phenomena. This branch of philosophy “describes the philosophical approach that what is directly perceived and felt is considered more reliable than explanations or interpretations in communication”.[1] In phenomenology ideas are generated from rich amount of data by the means of induction and human interests, as well as stakeholder perspective may have their reflection on the study. Moreover, phenomenology in business studies is a valuable philosophy for exploring human experiences in management studies. The primary objective of phenomenological research is to understand how individuals experience and interpret a particular phenomenon. Instead of measuring variables or identifying causal relationships, phenomenological studies attempt to capture the essence of lived experiences. Researchers therefore aim to describe how participants perceive, feel, and make sense of events or situations within their social or organizational context. This approach allows researchers to gain deeper insights into complex human experiences that cannot easily be quantified. Phenomenological research is closely associated with qualitative research methods. In business and management studies, data for phenomenological research are often collected through in-depth interviews, focus groups, participant observations, and reflective diaries. These methods enable researchers to gather rich and detailed descriptions of participants’ experiences. The emphasis is placed on understanding meanings rather than measuring frequencies or statistical relationships. A study analysing the impact of leadership style on employee motivation through conducting in-depth interviews with employees is a suitable example for research with a phenomenology philosophy. Furthermore, a study into work-life balance and its impact on employee performance is another…

Positivism is a research philosophy that assumes knowledge is based on observable, measurable facts and that reality is objective and independent of the researcher. It focuses on testing hypotheses, identifying causal relationships, and producing generalisable findings through quantitative methods.   On this page: What is Positivism? Main Principles Science as a Basis for Positivism Differences between Positivism and Interpretivism When to Use Positivism Shortcomings Aspect Positivism Interpretivism Nature of reality Objective, single Subjective, multiple Research goal Explanation, prediction Understanding meanings Data type Quantitative Qualitative Researcher role Independent Interactive Outcome Generalisable results Context-specific insights Table 1. Positivism vs. Interpretivism (quick comparison)   What is Positivism? It has to be acknowledged that it is difficult to explain positivism research philosophy in a precise and succinct manner. This is because there are vast differences between settings in which positivism is used by researchers. The number variations in explaining positivism may be equal to the number of authors who addressed the area of research philosophy. Positivism has its roots in the works of nineteenth-century philosophers such as Auguste Comte, who argued that scientific knowledge should be based on observable and measurable facts rather than metaphysical speculation. Comte believed that social sciences should adopt the same rigorous methods used in natural sciences in order to identify patterns and causal relationships in social phenomena. Later scholars expanded these ideas and applied positivist principles to disciplines such as economics, sociology, and management studies. Nevertheless, in its essence, positivism is based on the idea that science is the only way to learn about the truth. The text below explains positivism research philosophy with the focus on business studies in particular. As a philosophy, positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained through observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy. In positivism studies the role of the researcher is…

Research philosophy refers to the set of beliefs and assumptions about how knowledge is developed, what is valid knowledge, and how research should be done. It guides the choice of research methods, data collection, and analysis by defining how a researcher understands reality and knowledge.   On this page: What is Research Philosophy? Why it Research Philoshophy Matters? The Choice of Research Philosophy How to use Research Philosophy Philosophy Focus Data Type Typical Methods Positivism Objective facts, causality Quantitative Surveys, statistical analysis Interpretivism Meanings, experiences Qualitative Interviews, observations Realism Objective reality with interpretation Mixed Both qualitative & quantitative Pragmatism Practical solutions Mixed Flexible methods Main research philosophies at a glance   What is Research Philosophy? Many students initially find research philosophy difficult to understand because it deals with abstract concepts about knowledge and reality. However, it is not necessary to become a philosopher in order to apply philosophical ideas in research. The key objective is simply to understand the basic assumptions underlying the research approach and to demonstrate that the chosen methodology is logically consistent with those assumptions. Research philosophy is a vast topic and here we will not be discussing this topic in great details. Research philosophy is associated with assumption, knowledge and nature of the study. It deals with the specific way of developing knowledge. This matter needs to be addressed because researchers may have different assumptions about the nature of truth and knowledge and philosophy helps us to understand their assumptions. In business and economics dissertations at Bachelor’s level, you are not expected to discuss this topic in a great level of depth, and about one page in methodology chapter devoted to research philosophy usually suffices. For a business dissertation at Master’s level, on the other hand, you may need to provide more discussion of the philosophy of…

Axiology in research refers to the role of values, ethics, and researcher judgement in the research process. It examines how a researcher’s beliefs, assumptions, and ethical considerations influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of a study. On this page: What is Axiology? Axiology in Research Philosophy When to Use Axiology   Philosophy Role of Values Researcher Position Methods Positivism Value-free Independent Quantitative, structured Realism Value-influenced Aware of bias Mixed methods Interpretivism Value-bound Part of research Qualitative, in-depth Pragmatism Value-driven Flexible Mixed methods Axiology across research philosophies   What is Axiology? Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgements about the value[1]. The term axiology is derived from the Greek and means ‘value’ or ‘worth’. Axiology is engaged with assessment of the role of researcher’s own value on all stages of the research process.[2]. It is a relatively recent addition to the area of research philosophy. Axiology primarily refers to the ‘aims’ of the research. This branch of the research philosophy attempts to clarify if you are trying to explain or predict the world, or are you only seeking to understand it.[3] In simple terms, axiology focuses on what do you value in your research. This is important because your values affect how you conduct your research and what do you value in your research findings. Moreover, axiology relates to a dissertation or any research for that matter in the following ways: 1. Ethical Considerations. Axiology guides the researcher in addressing ethical issues that may arise during the research process. It entails considering the rights and welfare of participants, ensuring informed consent, maintaining confidentiality, and avoiding potential harm or exploitation. A clear axiological framework helps researchers make responsible and ethical decisions throughout the research process. 2. Value Judgments. Axiology acknowledges that research is not conducted in a vacuum; researchers bring…

The research process refers to a structured sequence of steps that guide how a study is conducted, from selecting a research topic to reaching conclusions. It ensures that research is systematic, logical, and aligned with research objectives. Stage Purpose Output Topic selection Identify research area Research topic Aim & objectives Define direction Research questions / hypotheses Literature review Review existing knowledge Theoretical foundation Data collection Gather data Dataset Data analysis Interpret data Findings Quality assurance Ensure reliability/validity Credible results Conclusion Answer research question Final conclusions Research process at a glance Dissertation markers expect you to include the explanation of research process in methodology chapter. A typical research process consists of the following stages: 1. Selecting the research area. The research process begins with the selection of a research area. Your dissertation marker expects you to state that you have selected the research area due to professional and personal interests in the area and this statement must be true. Students often underestimate the importance of this first stage in the research process. If you find a research area and research problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that the whole process of writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to start thinking about the research area for your dissertation.   The following diagram illustrates the research process for a dissertation. Research Process for Dissertations   2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses. Once the research area has been identified, you will have to formulate the research aim and objectives and develop research questions or hypotheses. The choice between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses depends on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more details. Appropriate research aims and objectives…